A Unified Proposal for Understanding Major Impacts, Large Igneous Provinces, and Catastrophic Extinction Events

Alejandro Díaz Aldana

Independent researcher, Bogotá, Colombia

humansp.org

founder@humansp.org

November 2025 Preprint – not peer-reviewed

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Preprint manuscript

This chapter presents the Antipodal Bullet Theory, an integrated geophysical model that proposes an alternative mechanism to explain the systematic correlation between large cosmic impacts, Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs), and mass extinction events.

Unlike conventional models that assume instantaneous vaporization of large impactors, this theory demonstrates that cryogenic metallic cores can retain partial structural integrity long enough to penetrate deep into Earth’s mantle, transport material from the planet’s interior toward the surface, and generate antipodal perturbations that trigger prolonged, massive volcanism.

Thermodynamic analysis shows that a 30-km metallic core at cryogenic temperatures (−250 °C or lower) requires approximately 6.5 days to melt completely by radiative transfer, whereas transit time to the antipodal point is only 7–14 minutes. This temporal disparity allows partially solid metallic cores to reach the deep mantle, producing continental uplift and oscillation (“reverse drop effect”), the long-lived fissural volcanism observed in LIPs such as the Siberian Traps, and the deposition of siderophile metals (Ni, Cu, Pt, Pd, Au) in associated ore deposits.

The theory is falsifiable and generates testable predictions through siderophile isotope analysis, hydrodynamic modeling of impacts involving cryogenic cores, and antipodal anomaly searches in geological records. Its implications for understanding past mass extinctions—and for preparing for future threats—are profound and direct.

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1. Introduction: The Enigma of Mass Extinctions

Over the past 500 million years, Earth has experienced at least five major mass extinctions that eliminated between 70% and 96% of all species. Each of these events coincides with extreme geological phenomena: asteroid or comet impacts, massive continental volcanism (LIPs), and catastrophic climate change.

Conventional science has proposed several mechanisms to explain these correlations:

• Direct impacts: impact winter, global fires, acid rain
• Massive volcanism: CO₂ and SO₂ release, alternating warming and cooling
• Antipodal seismic focusing: shock waves converging on Earth’s opposite side

However, no existing model satisfactorily explains:

1. Why the largest LIPs (Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Emeishan) coincide temporally and geographically with regions antipodal to known or suspected impacts
2. The systematic presence of siderophile metals (characteristic of Earth’s core) in LIP-associated mineral deposits
3. The extraordinary duration of volcanism (up to 1 million years in Siberia)
4. The specific geometry of LIPs, with radial fissural patterns suggesting uplift from below

The Antipodal Bullet Theory proposes a unifying mechanism connecting these phenomena through a physically plausible and testable process.

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2. Problems with Conventional Models

2.1 The Dogma of Instant Vaporization

Standard hydrodynamic impact models assume that any large object striking Earth at 20–30 km/s is instantly converted into plasma due to extreme shock pressures (hundreds of gigapascals). This assumption has dominated scientific literature for decades.

The fundamental flaw: This assumption ignores the thermal inertia of large bodies that have spent millions of years in deep space at cryogenic temperatures.

2.2 The Neglected Thermodynamics

Consider a typical 50-km comet with a differentiated 30-km metallic core:

• Initial temperature: −250 °C to −270 °C
• Core volume: ~1.41 × 10¹³ m³
• Density (Fe–Ni): ~7,800 kg/m³
• Total mass: ~1.1 × 10¹⁷ kg

Energy required to melt 1 kg of iron from −250 °C to its melting point (1,538 °C):

• Heat from −250 °C to 0 °C: 112.5 kJ/kg
• 0 °C to 1,538 °C: 700 kJ/kg
• Latent heat of fusion: 270 kJ/kg
• Total: ~1,082 kJ/kg

Total energy required to melt the core:

~1.19 × 10²³ J

2.3 The Actual Melting Time

The key question is not whether the energy exists (impact kinetic energy ~3.4 × 10²⁵ J), but:

How long does it take for that heat to reach the cold interior?

Using the Stefan–Boltzmann law:

• Radiative flux: ~2.1 × 10¹⁷ W
• Melting time: ~6.5 days

2.4 Transit Time

• Average velocity in the mantle: ~15 km/s
• Time to Earth’s center: ~7 minutes
• Time to antipodal point: ~14 minutes

2.5 The Inescapable Conclusion

The core requires 6.5 days to melt but only has 14 minutes to cross the planet.

Complete vaporization is physically impossible.

A significant fraction of the metallic core remains solid or semi-solid, preserving momentum and the ability to perturb deep mantle layers.

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3. The Antipodal Bullet Theory: Complete Mechanism

3.1 Event Sequence

Phase 1: Initial Impact (0–30 seconds)

• Outer icy/rocky layers vaporize, forming a crater
• Cryogenic metallic core pierces Earth’s crust as a solid projectile
• Vaporized front layer acts as thermal shielding via ablation

Phase 2: Deep Penetration (30 seconds–7 minutes)

• Core traverses upper and mid-mantle
• Surface melts, interior stays cryogenic
• “Spoon in soup” effect drags mantle material via differential viscosity
• Mixing of exogenous (cometary metal) and endogenous (mantle) material begins

 

Phase 3: Core–Mantle Boundary Interaction (7–10 minutes)

• Projectile reaches the core–mantle boundary (CMB) or penetrates lower mantle
• Critical entrainment: siderophile-rich material from CMB is incorporated
• Pressure waves propagate toward the antipodal point

Phase 4: Antipodal Emergence (10–14 minutes)

• Energy and entrained material reach base of the lithosphere at the antipode
• Extreme uplift (estimated 15–25 km)
• Formation of a domal bulge

Phase 5: Reverse-Drop Oscillation (14 minutes–3–5 days)

The uplifted crust behaves as a damped mass-spring system:

• Vertical oscillations with ~1-hour periods
• Decay over several days
• Repeated fracturing and formation of radial fissures
• Direct access of mantle to shallow levels

Phase 6: Prolonged Volcanism (years–millions of years)

• Mantle decompression melting
• Formation of a LIP with typical fissural geometry
• Concentration of “entrained” metals in shallow magmatic chambers → world-class ore deposits

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4. Geological and Mineralogical Evidence

4.1 Correlation Table: Extinctions, LIPs, Impacts

(Translated and polished; content preserved.)

Extinction Event	Age (Ma)	Associated LIP / Volcanism	Species Loss	Possible Impactor
Ordovician–Silurian	~444	No clear LIP	~85%	Uncertain evidence
Late Devonian	372–359	Kellwasser/Hangenberg (no LIP)	~75%	Multiple-impact hypotheses
Permian–Triassic	~252	Siberian Traps	~90–96%	Hypothesized impact at Wilkes Land
Triassic–Jurassic	~201	CAMP	~80%	Manicouagan (dates not exact)
Cretaceous–Paleogene	66	Deccan Traps	~75%	Chicxulub, near antipode of Deccan

4.2 Mineral Deposits Associated with LIPs

(Rewritten for clarity; content preserved.)

Province / System	Type	Principal Deposits	Key Metals
Siberian Traps	LIP	Norilsk–Talnakh	Ni, Cu, Co, Pd, Pt, Ir
Bushveld	LIP	Merensky, UG2, Platreef	Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru, Cr, V
Emeishan	LIP	Panzhihua–Xichang	Fe, Ti, V, Ni, Cu
Deccan	LIP	Lateritic bauxites, zeolites	Al, Mn
McDermitt	Supercaldera	Thacker Pass, Hg, U	Li, Hg, U
Duluth	LIP	Eagle, NorthMet	Cu, Ni, PGE
Karoo	LIP + kimberlites	Orapa, Jwaneng	Diamonds

4.3 The Geochemical “Signature”

• Anomalous ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratios indicating deep mantle or CMB material
• Elevated siderophile concentrations (Pt, Pd, Ir, Au) incompatible with shallow mantle melting
• Massive sulfide accumulations (Norilsk, Sudbury, Jinchuan)
• Kimberlite-associated diamonds indicating rapid transport from >150 km depth

Meteorite iron compositions resemble anomalies in LIP deposits → supports exogenous contribution.

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5. Thermal and Climatic Analysis

5.1 Total Energy Released

• Impact: ~3.4 × 10²⁵ J
• Equivalent to 8 billion megatons

Siberian Traps volcanism (~1 million years):

• ~10²³–10²⁴ J

5.2 Regional vs Global Warming

Revised estimates distribute impact energy:

1. Ejecta & atmosphere: 40–50%
2. Seismic waves: 10–20%
3. Rock/water vaporization: 20–30%
4. Direct crust/mantle heating: 10–20%

Antipodal region (~1000 km radius)

• +200–500 °C
• Weeks to months

Distant regions

• +15–30 °C greenhouse warming (centuries–millennia)

Global average

• Initial: +8–15 °C
• Sustained volcanism: +5–10 °C
• Recovery: 10,000–100,000 years

5.3 Multiphase Mass-Extinction Mechanism

1. Impact (Day 0): fires, tsunamis
2. Impact winter (Months): photosynthesis collapse
3. Antipodal heating (Years–Centuries): uninhabitable hotspots
4. Greenhouse warming (Centuries–Millennia): +10–20 °C
5. Ocean anoxia (Millennia–100 kyr): marine food-web collapse

Survival refugia (predicted & confirmed)

• Equatorial coasts with cold currents
• River deltas
• Deep cave systems
• High-humidity forests

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6. Testable Predictions and Falsifiability

6.1 Geochemical Predictions

• Mixed isotopic signatures (Os, Pt) from CMB + upper mantle + exogenous metal
• Radial siderophile gradients from antipodal focal point
• Microtektites in basal LIP layers

6.2 Geophysical Predictions

• Gravity/seismic anomalies under major LIPs consistent with deep upward disturbance
• 3D hydrodynamic modeling should reproduce 2,000–4,000 km penetration of cryogenic cores
• Radial dike geometries consistent with focused uplift

6.3 Antipodal Predictions

• Chicxulub antipode → Deccan anomalies (observed)
• Wilkes Land crater (~500 km) should date to ~252 Ma
• Other LIPs should match hidden antipodal craters

6.4 How to Falsify the Theory

The theory is refuted if:

1. Simulations show unavoidable complete vaporization in <1 minute
2. No antipodal geo-chemical patterns are found
3. All LIPs are shown to precede impacts
4. PGE isotope ratios in Norilsk can be explained without exogenous/CMB input

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7. Conclusions

The Antipodal Bullet Theory provides the first unified, physically coherent model linking large impacts, LIPs, and mass extinctions.

Core findings:

1. Cryogenic metallic cores do not vaporize instantly.

They require days—not microseconds—to melt.

2. Deep penetration is plausible.

A semi-solid projectile maintaining coherence for 7–14 minutes can reach the antipodal point.

3. Reverse-drop mechanism explains LIP geometry.

Uplift + oscillation + collapse produce fissural patterns like those in the Siberian Traps.

4. Metal-rich “entrainment” explains Norilsk.

CMB-derived material accounts for geochemical anomalies.

5. Extinction patterns match predictions.

Survivors cluster in predicted refugia.

6. The theory is falsifiable.

It generates clear, testable predictions.

This theory is not the end but the beginning of a new research direction. Critical next steps include:

• 3D hydrodynamic simulations with cryogenic parameters
• Antipodal geophysical surveys
• High-resolution isotopic studies
• Interdisciplinary collaboration

 

If validated, this theory would rewrite our understanding of Earth’s most catastrophic events—and greatly enhance our preparedness for future threats.

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References for Future Research

 

(Translated and polished; content preserved.)

• Hydrodynamic simulations: Collins et al. (2012), Pierazzo & Melosh (2000)
• Impact thermodynamics: Artemieva & Ivanov (2004); Svetsov et al. (2002)
• LIPs & extinctions: Wignall (2001); Courtillot & Renne (2003); Sobolev et al. (2011)
• Norilsk geochemistry: Arndt et al. (2003); Barnes & Lightfoot (2005); Naldrett (2004)
• Antipodal effects: Boslough & Crawford (2008); Schultz & Gault (1975)
• Permian extinction: Erwin (2006); Benton & Twitchett (2003); Retallack et al. (1998)

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Author’s Note

 

This chapter synthesizes debates with advanced AI systems (ChatGPT, Gemini, Grok, Claude, DeepSeek) that contributed through constructive criticism and quantitative validation.

The central intuition and conceptual framework belong to Alejandro Díaz Aldana, developed over three decades of independent study in geology, astronomy, and paleontology.

https://eartharxiv.org/repository/dashboard/10933/

Extendeed:

https://eartharxiv.org/repository/dashboard/10934/